Japan's Three Military Experience: Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), Japanese-Russian War (1904-1905), and Japanese Invasion of Manchuria (1931-1945)

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

Background and Reasons

The Russian Empire and the Japanese Empire intervened militarily in Beijing as members of the Eight-Nation Alliance to suppress the Boxer revolt in China. In 1900, with the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion, Russia imposed treaties on the Qing government that included the cession of Manchuria to itself, and as a result, Russia sent 177,000 troops to Manchuria to supposedly protect the railways under construction. Although the Russians assured that they would withdraw once the crisis was over, far from withdrawing, it was increasingly seeking to strengthen its position in Manchuria and had not yet prepared a plan for withdrawal. Russia's growing presence in Manchuria worried Japan. On the other hand, Russia's purchase of Port Arthur in 1897, after the Sino-Japanese War, was an important step towards Russia's descent to warm seas, while it was a threat to Japan.

There was a fear in the Japanese government that Russian activities in Manchuria, holding the Kamchatka peninsula, might result in a Russian protectorate in Korea. Moreover, the Russian navy commanding Port Arthur was also a major threat to Japan militarily, although the Russian presence in Port Arthur was a defensive aspect against British invasion.

In fact, the Japanese Government had agreed to recognize Manchuria as a Russian sphere of influence if Russia recognized Korea as a Japanese sphere of influence, a policy which the Japanese called Man-kan Kokan. However, the Russians did not accept this offer. After all the negotiations were inconclusive, Japan decided to cut off all relations with Russia on February 6, 1904.

The Course of the War

Petersburg did not take the armament and army of the Japanese seriously. The Russians were of the opinion that with the arrival of spring and the thawing of the ice, it would be good to mobilize their navy against Japan. On the night of February 8 to February 9, a Japanese fleet under the command of Admiral Togo moved towards Port Artur, although the war had not officially begun. While this navy sank three Russian ships, another Japanese fleet came to the port of Cemulpo in Korea and landed. In all naval battles in this region, Russian battleships either retreated or were sunk by Japanese battleships, or had to sink themselves in order to surrender. As a result of this operation, Seoul was occupied by Japanese forces.

Later, as a result of the ongoing fighting in and around the Port Arthur harbor, on 22 March 1904, the Japanese antifreeze attacked Port Artur from three arms in the form of 6 armored cruisers, 6 small cruisers and 8 torpedo ships. After this attack, Port Arthur was besieged by the Japanese forces. On January 2, 1905, the commander of the Port Arthur Russian garrison, Anatoly Stessel, decided to surrender to Japanese troops without the permission of the Tsar and the military command. The Russians then suffered a series of defeats punctuated by the fall of Lüshun and the Battle of Mukden. In these defeats, the fact that the region was much closer to Japan and that it was difficult for Russia to supply troops to the region despite the Siberian Railway was very effective.

Consequence of the War for Japan

As a result of the war, Japan signed a treaty with Korea under which Korea recognized Japan's legal supremacy and was legally bound to keep the country under Japanese influence. The Japanese Government signed the Treaty of Portsmouth with the defeated Russian Empire officials in the US state of Maine, mediated by President Theodore Roosevelt. According to this agreement, Japan's influence in Korea and Manchuria increased, and Russia gave up its claims on Manchuria and Korea, and the administration of Port Arthur passed to Japan.

Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)

Reasons, Background and Prewar

First of all, one of the reasons why the Japanese invaded Korea was their policy of expansion. Korea has become an attractive destination for Japan with its strategic location and natural resources. The idea of an invasion of Korea was a plan that would allow the Empire of Japan to rise as a regional power and compete with other international powers. It also occupied a strategic position between Korea, Japan and China. By taking control of Korea, Japan wanted to control sea routes, secure maritime trade, and facilitate access to China by using its geographical advantages. Korea had an important place in strengthening Japan's presence in East Asia and influencing the geopolitical balances in the region.

On the other hand, the Japanese also pursued economic interests on the Korean peninsula. As Japan increased its foreign trade with industrialization and needed export markets, Korea had the potential to become an important trade center for Japan due to its strategic location as well as having rich natural resources. By taking control of Korea, the Japanese could expand their business activities and compete with other countries in Asia.

Also, Japan was uncomfortable with China's influence on Korea. Although it was weakened considerably after the Opium Wars and its internal turmoil, the Qing Government reacted strongly to the fact that the US addressed Korea as an independent state in the Shufeldt treaty that Korea signed with the US. This diplomatic crisis ended when the King of Korea declared to the US president in a letter that Korea had a special status as a dependent state of China. Hence, security concerns had an important place among the reasons for the anxious attitude of the Japanese towards Korea.

War and Its Crucial Results

The war began after the Donghak peasant revolt that began in 1894. This revolt against the oppressive taxation and inept financial management of the Joseon government in Korea was the largest peasant revolt in Korean history. In this case, it was discussed that China and Japan should send troops to Korea. The Japanese announced that they would send troops to Korea if China did the same. The revolt was seen as an opportunity to legitimize the Japanese reasons for invading Korea. The Japanese decided to intervene militarily to suppress the Donghak Rebellion and increase their influence in Korea.

The Japanese began the invasion process by sending troops to Korea in September 1894. In the face of the Imperial Japanese Army as a well-trained and disciplined force, Korea's local forces and Qing soldiers were unable to resist the superior military technologies and strategies of the Japanese.

Although the Japanese initially occupied most of Korea and took control of the capital Seoul, the Chinese forces made a new attack this time, counterattacked, and managed to stop the Japanese advance. Later, the forces of Russia, France and England took the side of China and stopped the Japanese. Thereupon, Japan sought a diplomatic solution and signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki with the Qing government on April 17, 1895. The Chinese government recognized the full independence of Korea, which it did not recognize 15 years ago, and left the Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan Island and Penghu Islands to Japan “permanently”.

Japanese Invasion of Manchuria (1931-1945)

Strategic Significance of Manchuria

Manchuria, which was theoretically in the triangle of Japan, China and Russia since the last quarter of the 19th century, actually continued to exist as a region of conflict between Russia and Japan for many years, and as we discussed above, with the defeat of the Russians to the Japanese in 1905, the Russians lost their influence in Manchuria and lost their influence in the region. He had abandoned it to Japanese influence. One of the most important features of Manchuria, which has access to all power centers as a region between China, Korea, Russia and historical Mongolia, was that it offered an important land resource for logistics and troop shipments thanks to its plains. Hence, the military power holding Manchuria was always quite advantageous in military operations against the surrounding regions. The Trans-Siberian Railway, which passed through Manchuria and was completed in 1916, made the region even more important in this respect.

Invasion and Results

The occupation by the Japanese began in 1931 with a series of events also known as the Mukden Incident. These events began when members of the Imperial Japanese Army allegedly sabotaged the Japanese railway line in the city of Mukden (present-day Shenyang) in Manchuria.

Actually, this act of sabotage was a provocation by the Imperial Japanese Army. Following this event, the Japanese occupied parts of Manchuria, claiming that they were attacking the Chinese insurgents and trying to control the area. The real aim of the Japanese was to include Manchuria in their sphere of influence and to control its resources and strategic position.

The invasion of Manchuria later became part of the expansionist policies of the Japanese Empire. The Japanese took de facto control of the region by establishing a puppet state, Manchukuo, in Manchuria. Manchukuo became a Japanese colony, where he ruled the area by taking advantage of Japan's economic and military resources.

A Historiographic Addition

The invasion of Manchuria is, according to some historians, an alternative start date for the Second World War, unlike the known date of September 1, 1939. Many Western historians deal with the Second World War on a purely Eurocentric basis; Japan seems to have a sense of otherness towards the activities of China and the Soviet Union in Asia. However, Far Asia has been in great turmoil since the end of the 19th century, making it felt that it was evolving towards a world war.